Module 2: The Chemical Level of Organization

Lesson 6: Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning: Carbohydrates

Các Hợp Chất Hữu Cơ Cần Thiết Cho Hoạt Động Của Con Người: Carbohydrate

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Dưới đây là danh sách những thuật ngữ Y khoa của module The Chemical Level of Organization.
Khái quát được số lượng thuật ngữ sẽ xuất hiện trong bài đọc và nghe sẽ giúp bạn thoải mái tiêu thụ nội dung hơn. Sau khi hoàn thành nội dung đọc và nghe, bạn hãy quay lại đây và luyện tập (practice) để quen dần các thuật ngữ này. Đừng ép bản thân phải nhớ các thuật ngữ này vội vì bạn sẽ gặp và ôn lại danh sách này trong những bài học (lesson) khác của cùng một module.

Medical Terminology: The Chemical Level of Organization

acid
compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
activation energy
amount of energy greater than the energy contained in the reactants, which must be overcome for a reaction to proceed
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
nucleotide containing ribose and an adenine base that is essential in energy transfer
amino acid
building block of proteins; characterized by an amino and carboxyl functional groups and a variable side-chain
anion
atom with a negative charge
atom
smallest unit of an element that retains the unique properties of that element
atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
base
compound that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
bond
electrical force linking atoms
buffer
solution containing a weak acid or a weak base that opposes wide fluctuations in the pH of body fluids
carbohydrate
class of organic compounds built from sugars, molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1-2-1 ratio
catalyst
substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed in the process
cation
atom with a positive charge
chemical energy
form of energy that is absorbed as chemical bonds form, stored as they are maintained, and released as they are broken
colloid
liquid mixture in which the solute particles consist of clumps of molecules large enough to scatter light
compound
substance composed of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
concentration
number of particles within a given space
covalent bond
chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons, thereby completing their valence shells
decomposition reaction
type of catabolic reaction in which one or more bonds within a larger molecule are broken, resulting in the release of smaller molecules or atoms
denaturation
change in the structure of a molecule through physical or chemical means
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
deoxyribose-containing nucleotide that stores genetic information
disaccharide
pair of carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via a glycosidic bond
disulfide bond
covalent bond formed within a polypeptide between sulfide groups of sulfur-containing amino acids, for example, cysteine
electron
subatomic particle having a negative charge and nearly no mass; found orbiting the atom’s nucleus
electron shell
area of space a given distance from an atom’s nucleus in which electrons are grouped
element
substance that cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemical means
enzyme
protein or RNA that catalyzes chemical reactions
exchange reaction
type of chemical reaction in which bonds are both formed and broken, resulting in the transfer of components
functional group
group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds that tends to behave as a distinct unit in chemical reactions with other atoms
hydrogen bond
dipole-dipole bond in which a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom is weakly attracted to a second electronegative atom
inorganic compound
substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen
ion
atom with an overall positive or negative charge
ionic bond
attraction between an anion and a cation
isotope
one of the variations of an element in which the number of neutrons differ from each other
kinetic energy
energy that matter possesses because of its motion
lipid
class of nonpolar organic compounds built from hydrocarbons and distinguished by the fact that they are not soluble in water
macromolecule
large molecule formed by covalent bonding
mass number
sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
matter
physical substance; that which occupies space and has mass
molecule
two or more atoms covalently bonded together
monosaccharide
monomer of carbohydrate; also known as a simple sugar
neutron
heavy subatomic particle having no electrical charge and found in the atom’s nucleus
nucleotide
class of organic compounds composed of one or more phosphate groups, a pentose sugar, and a base
organic compound
substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen
peptide bond
covalent bond formed by dehydration synthesis between two amino acids
periodic table of the elements
arrangement of the elements in a table according to their atomic number; elements having similar properties because of their electron arrangements compose columns in the table, while elements having the same number of valence shells compose rows in the table
pH
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a solution
phospholipid
a lipid compound in which a phosphate group is combined with a diglyceride
phosphorylation
addition of one or more phosphate groups to an organic compound
polar molecule
molecule with regions that have opposite charges resulting from uneven numbers of electrons in the nuclei of the atoms participating in the covalent bond
polysaccharide
compound consisting of more than two carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via glycosidic bonds
potential energy
stored energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components
product
one or more substances produced by a chemical reaction
prostaglandin
lipid compound derived from fatty acid chains and important in regulating several body processes
protein
class of organic compounds that are composed of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
proton
heavy subatomic particle having a positive charge and found in the atom’s nucleus
purine
nitrogen-containing base with a double ring structure; adenine and guanine
pyrimidine
nitrogen-containing base with a single ring structure; cytosine, thiamine, and uracil
radioactive isotope
unstable, heavy isotope that gives off subatomic particles, or electromagnetic energy, as it decays; also called radioisotopes
reactant
one or more substances that enter into the reaction
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
ribose-containing nucleotide that helps manifest the genetic code as protein
solution
homogeneous liquid mixture in which a solute is dissolved into molecules within a solvent
steroid
(also, sterol) lipid compound composed of four hydrocarbon rings bonded to a variety of other atoms and molecules
substrate
reactant in an enzymatic reaction
suspension
liquid mixture in which particles distributed in the liquid settle out over time
synthesis reaction
type of anabolic reaction in which two or more atoms or molecules bond, resulting in the formation of a larger molecule
triglyceride
lipid compound composed of a glycerol molecule bonded with three fatty acid chains
valence shell
outermost electron shell of an atom
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Dưới đây là các bài văn nằm ở bên trái. Ở bên phải là các bài luyện tập (practice) để đánh giá khả năng đọc hiểu của bạn. Sẽ khó khăn trong thời gian đầu nếu vốn từ vựng của bạn còn hạn chế, đặc biệt là từ vựng Y khoa. Hãy kiên nhẫn và đọc nhiều nhất có kể, lượng kiến thức tích tụ dần sẽ giúp bạn đọc thoải mái hơn.
The term carbohydrate means “hydrated carbon.” Recall that the root hydro- indicates water. A carbohydrate is a molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; in most carbohydrates, hydrogen and oxygen are found in the same two-to-one relative proportions they have in water. In fact, the chemical formula for a “generic” molecule of carbohydrate is (CH2O)n.

Carbohydrates are referred to as saccharides, a word meaning “sugars.” Three forms are important in the body. Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrates. Disaccharides (di- = “two”) are made up of two monomers. Polysaccharides are the polymers, and can consist of hundreds to thousands of monomers.
A monosaccharide is a monomer of carbohydrates. Five monosaccharides are important in the body. Three of these are the hexose sugars, so called because they each contain six atoms of carbon. These are glucose, fructose, and galactose, shown in Figure 1a. The remaining monosaccharides are the two pentose sugars, each of which contains five atoms of carbon. They are ribose and deoxyribose, shown in Figure 1b.
A disaccharide is a pair of monosaccharides. Disaccharides are formed via dehydration synthesis, and the bond linking them is referred to as a glycosidic bond (glyco- = “sugar”). Three disaccharides (shown in Figure 2) are important to humans. These are sucrose, commonly referred to as table sugar; lactose, or milk sugar; and maltose, or malt sugar. As you can tell from their common names, you consume these in your diet; however, your body cannot use them directly. Instead, in the digestive tract, they are split into their component monosaccharides via hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides can contain a few to a thousand or more monosaccharides. Three are important to the body Figure 3:

  • Starches are polymers of glucose. They occur in long chains called amylose or branched chains called amylopectin, both of which are stored in plant-based foods and are relatively easy to digest.
  • Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose, but it is stored in the tissues of animals, especially in the muscles and liver. It is not considered a dietary carbohydrate because very little glycogen remains in animal tissues after slaughter; however, the human body stores excess glucose as glycogen, again, in the muscles and liver.
  • Cellulose, a polysaccharide that is the primary component of the cell wall of green plants, is the component of plant food referred to as “fiber”. In humans, cellulose/fiber is not digestible; however, dietary fiber has many health benefits. It helps you feel full so you eat less, it promotes a healthy digestive tract, and a diet high in fiber is thought to reduce the risk of heart disease and possibly some forms of cancer.
The body obtains carbohydrates from plant-based foods. Grains, fruits, and legumes and other vegetables provide most of the carbohydrate in the human diet, although lactose is found in dairy products.

Although most body cells can break down other organic compounds for fuel, all body cells can use glucose. Moreover, nerve cells (neurons) in the brain, spinal cord, and through the peripheral nervous system, as well as red blood cells, can use only glucose for fuel. In the breakdown of glucose for energy, molecules of adenosine triphosphate, better known as ATP, are produced. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups. ATP releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are broken, and thus supplies ready energy to the cell. More ATP is produced in the presence of oxygen (O2) than in pathways that do not use oxygen. The overall reaction for the conversion of the energy in glucose to energy stored in ATP can be written:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP

In addition to being a critical fuel source, carbohydrates are present in very small amounts in cells’ structure. For instance, some carbohydrate molecules bind with proteins to produce glycoproteins, and others combine with lipids to produce glycolipids, both of which are found in the membrane that encloses the contents of body cells.

OpenStax. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology 2e. Rice University. Retrieved June 15, 2023. ISBN-13: 978-1-711494-06-7 (Hardcover) ISBN-13: 978-1-711494-05-0 (Paperback) ISBN-13: 978-1-951693-42-8 (Digital). License: Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at openstax.org.

All three important disaccharides form by dehydration synthesis.

Three important polysaccharides are starches, glycogen, and fiber.

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Dưới đây là video và các luyện tập (practice) của bài này. Nghe là một kĩ năng khó, đặc biệt là khi chúng ta chưa quen nội dung và chưa có nhạy cảm ngôn ngữ. Nhưng cứ đi thật chậm và đừng bỏ cuộc.
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Script:
  1. Organic compounds essential to human functioning include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides.
  2. These compounds are said to be organic because they contain both carbon and hydrogen.
  3. Carbon atoms in organic compounds readily share electrons with hydrogen and other atoms, usually oxygen, and sometimes nitrogen.
  4. Carbon atoms also may bond with one or more functional groups such as carboxyls, hydroxyls, aminos, or phosphates.
  5. Monomers are single units of organic compounds.
  6. They bond by dehydration synthesis to form polymers, which can in turn be broken by hydrolysis.
  7. Carbohydrate compounds provide essential body fuel.
  8. Their structural forms include monosaccharides such as glucose, disaccharides such as lactose, and polysaccharides, including starches, glycogen, and fiber.
  9. Starches are polymers of glucose, while glycogen is the storage form of glucose.
  10. All body cells can use glucose for fuel.
  11. It is converted via an oxidation-reduction reaction to ATP.
  12. Lipids are hydrophobic compounds that provide body fuel and are important components of many biological compounds.
  13. Triglycerides are the most abundant lipid in the body, and are composed of a glycerol backbone attached to three fatty acid chains.
  14. Phospholipids are compounds composed of a diglyceride with a phosphate group attached at the molecule’s head.
  15. The result is a molecule with polar and nonpolar regions.
  16. Steroids are lipids formed of four hydrocarbon rings.
  17. The most important is cholesterol.
  18. Prostaglandins are signaling molecules derived from unsaturated fatty acids.
  19. Proteins are critical components of all body tissues.
  20. They are made up of monomers called amino acids, which contain nitrogen, joined by peptide bonds.
  21. Protein shape is critical to its function.
  22. Most body proteins are globular.
  23. An example is enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions.
  24. Nucleotides are compounds with three building blocks: one or more phosphate groups, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.
  25. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that function in protein synthesis.
  26. ATP is the body’s fundamental molecule of energy transfer.
  27. Removal or addition of phosphates releases or invests energy.
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