Module 1: Introduction to Human Body

Lesson 3: Essential Requirements for Human Life

Nhu Cầu Thiết Yếu Cho Đời Sống Con Người

Nội dung bài học:
Mỗi bài học (lesson) bao gồm 4 phần chính: Thuật ngữ, Luyện Đọc, Luyện Nghe, và Bàn Luận.
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Dưới đây là danh sách những thuật ngữ Y khoa của module Introduction to Human Body.
Khái quát được số lượng thuật ngữ sẽ xuất hiện trong bài đọc và nghe sẽ giúp bạn thoải mái tiêu thụ nội dung hơn. Sau khi hoàn thành nội dung đọc và nghe, bạn hãy quay lại đây và luyện tập (practice) để quen dần các thuật ngữ này. Đừng ép bản thân phải nhớ các thuật ngữ này vội vì bạn sẽ gặp và ôn lại danh sách này trong những bài học (lesson) khác của cùng một module.

Medical Terminology: Introduction to Human Body

abdominopelvic cavity
division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the abdominal and pelvic viscera
anabolism
assembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules
anatomical position
standard reference position used for describing locations and directions on the human body
anatomy
science that studies the form and composition of the body’s structures
anterior
describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as ventral
anterior cavity
larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as ventral cavity
catabolism
breaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules
caudal
describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as inferior
cell
smallest independently functioning unit of all organisms; in animals, a cell contains cytoplasm, composed of fluid and organelles
computed tomography (CT)
medical imaging technique in which a computer-enhanced cross-sectional X-ray image is obtained
control center
compares values to their normal range; deviations cause the activation of an effector
cranial
describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as superior
cranial cavity
division of the posterior (dorsal) cavity that houses the brain
deep
describes a position farther from the surface of the body
development
changes an organism goes through during its life
differentiation
process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function
distal
describes a position farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
dorsal
describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as posterior
dorsal cavity
posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to the posterior body cavity
effector
organ that can cause a change in a value
frontal plane
two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions
gross anatomy
study of the larger structures of the body, typically with the unaided eye; also referred to macroscopic anatomy
growth
process of increasing in size
homeostasis
steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain
inferior
describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as caudal
lateral
describes the side or direction toward the side of the body
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
medical imaging technique in which a device generates a magnetic field to obtain detailed sectional images of the internal structures of the body
medial
describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body
metabolism
sum of all of the body’s chemical reactions
microscopic anatomy
study of very small structures of the body using magnification
negative feedback
homeostatic mechanism that tends to stabilize an upset in the body’s physiological condition by preventing an excessive response to a stimulus, typically as the stimulus is removed
normal range
range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center
nutrient
chemical obtained from foods and beverages that is critical to human survival
organ
functionally distinct structure composed of two or more types of tissues
organ system
group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function
organism
living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life
pericardium
sac that encloses the heart
peritoneum
serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs found there
physiology
science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions
plane
imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body
pleura
serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity and covers the lungs
positive feedback
mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus
positron emission tomography (PET)
medical imaging technique in which radiopharmaceuticals are traced to reveal metabolic and physiological functions in tissues
posterior
describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as dorsal
posterior cavity
posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to as dorsal cavity
pressure
force exerted by a substance in contact with another substance
prone
face down
proximal
describes a position nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
regional anatomy
study of the structures that contribute to specific body regions
renewal
process by which worn-out cells are replaced
reproduction
process by which new organisms are generated
responsiveness
ability of an organisms or a system to adjust to changes in conditions
sagittal plane
two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides
section
in anatomy, a single flat surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut through
sensor
(also, receptor) reports a monitored physiological value to the control center
serosa
membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serous membrane
serous membrane
membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serosa
set point
ideal value for a physiological parameter; the level or small range within which a physiological parameter such as blood pressure is stable and optimally healthful, that is, within its parameters of homeostasis
spinal cavity
division of the dorsal cavity that houses the spinal cord; also referred to as vertebral cavity
superficial
describes a position nearer to the surface of the body
superior
Phía trên
describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as cranial
Above something: Ở vị trí phía trên
supine
face up
systemic anatomy
study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems
thoracic cavity
division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, esophagus, and trachea
tissue
group of similar or closely related cells that act together to perform a specific function
transverse plane
two-dimensional, horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions
ultrasonography
application of ultrasonic waves to visualize subcutaneous body structures such as tendons and organs
ventral
describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as anterior
ventral cavity
larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as anterior body cavity
X-ray
form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases; used in medicine as a diagnostic aid to visualize body structures such as bones
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Dưới đây là các bài văn nằm ở bên trái. Ở bên phải là các bài luyện tập (practice) để đánh giá khả năng đọc hiểu của bạn. Sẽ khó khăn trong thời gian đầu nếu vốn từ vựng của bạn còn hạn chế, đặc biệt là từ vựng Y khoa. Hãy kiên nhẫn và đọc nhiều nhất có kể, lượng kiến thức tích tụ dần sẽ giúp bạn đọc thoải mái hơn.
Humans have been acclimating to life on Earth for at least the past 200,000 years. Earth and its atmosphere have provided us with air to breathe, water to drink, and food to eat, but these are not the only requirements for survival. Although you may rarely think about it, you also cannot live outside of a certain range of temperature and pressure that the surface of our planet and its atmosphere provides. The next sections explore these four requirements of life.
Atmospheric air is only about 20 percent oxygen, but that oxygen is a key component of the chemical reactions that keep the body alive, including the reactions that produce ATP. Brain cells are especially sensitive to lack of oxygen because of their requirement for a high-and-steady production of ATP. Brain damage is likely within five minutes without oxygen, and death is likely within ten minutes.
A nutrient is a substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival. The three basic classes of nutrients are water, the energy-yielding and body-building nutrients, and the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).

The most critical nutrient is water. Depending on the environmental temperature and our state of health, we may be able to survive for only a few days without water. The body’s functional chemicals are dissolved and transported in water, and the chemical reactions of life take place in water. Moreover, water is the largest component of cells, blood, and the fluid between cells, and water makes up about 70 percent of an adult’s body mass. Water also helps regulate our internal temperature and cushions, protects, and lubricates joints and many other body structures.

The energy-yielding nutrients are primarily carbohydrates and lipids, while proteins mainly supply the amino acids that are the building blocks of the body itself. You ingest these in plant and animal foods and beverages, and the digestive system breaks them down into molecules small enough to be absorbed. The breakdown products of carbohydrates and lipids can then be used in the metabolic processes that convert them to ATP. Although you might feel as if you are starving after missing a single meal, you can survive without consuming the energy-yielding nutrients for at least several weeks.

Water and the energy-yielding nutrients are also referred to as macronutrients because the body needs them in large amounts. In contrast, micronutrients are vitamins and minerals. These elements and compounds participate in many essential chemical reactions and processes, such as nerve impulses, and some, such as calcium, also contribute to the body’s structure. Your body can store some of the micronutrients in its tissues, and draw on those reserves if you fail to consume them in your diet for a few days or weeks. Some others micronutrients, such as vitamin C and most of the B vitamins, are water-soluble and cannot be stored, so you need to consume them every day or two.
You have probably seen news stories about athletes who died of heat stroke, or hikers who died of exposure to cold. Such deaths occur because the chemical reactions upon which the body depends can only take place within a narrow range of body temperature, from just below to just above 37°C (98.6°F). When body temperature rises well above or drops well below normal, certain proteins (enzymes) that facilitate chemical reactions lose their normal structure and their ability to function and the chemical reactions of metabolism cannot proceed.

That said, the body can respond effectively to short-term exposure to heat (Figure 1) or cold. One of the body’s responses to heat is, of course, sweating. As sweat evaporates from skin, it removes some thermal energy from the body, cooling it. Adequate water (from the extracellular fluid in the body) is necessary to produce sweat, so adequate fluid intake is essential to balance that loss during the sweat response. Not surprisingly, the sweat response is much less effective in a humid environment because the air is already saturated with water. Thus, the sweat on the skin’s surface is not able to evaporate, and internal body temperature can get dangerously high.

The body can also respond effectively to short-term exposure to cold. One response to cold is shivering, which is random muscle movement that generates heat. Another response is increased breakdown of stored energy to generate heat. When that energy reserve is depleted, however, and the core temperature begins to drop significantly, red blood cells will lose their ability to give up oxygen, denying the brain of this critical component of ATP production. This lack of oxygen can cause confusion, lethargy, and eventually loss of consciousness and death. The body responds to cold by reducing blood circulation to the extremities, the hands and feet, in order to prevent blood from cooling there and so that the body’s core can stay warm. Even when core body temperature remains stable, however, tissues exposed to severe cold, especially the fingers and toes, can develop frostbite when blood flow to the extremities has been much reduced. This form of tissue damage can be permanent and lead to gangrene, requiring amputation of the affected region.
Pressure is a force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance. Atmospheric pressure is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the Earth’s atmosphere. Although you may not perceive it, atmospheric pressure is constantly pressing down on your body. This pressure keeps gases within your body, such as the gaseous nitrogen in body fluids, dissolved. If you were suddenly ejected from a space ship above Earth’s atmosphere, you would go from a situation of normal pressure to one of very low pressure. The pressure of the nitrogen gas in your blood would be much higher than the pressure of nitrogen in the space surrounding your body. As a result, the nitrogen gas in your blood would expand, forming bubbles that could block blood vessels and even cause cells to break apart.

Atmospheric pressure does more than just keep blood gases dissolved. Your ability to breathe—that is, to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide—also depends upon a precise atmospheric pressure. Altitude sickness occurs in part because the atmosphere at high altitudes exerts less pressure, reducing the exchange of these gases, and causing shortness of breath, confusion, headache, lethargy, and nausea. Mountain climbers carry oxygen to reduce the effects of both low oxygen levels and low barometric pressure at higher altitudes (Figure 2).

The dynamic pressure of body fluids is also important to human survival. For example, blood pressure, which is the pressure exerted by blood as it flows within blood vessels, must be great enough to enable blood to reach all body tissues, and yet low enough to ensure that the delicate blood vessels can withstand the friction and force of the pulsating flow of pressurized blood.

OpenStax. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology 2e. Rice University. Retrieved June 15, 2023. ISBN-13: 978-1-711494-06-7 (Hardcover) ISBN-13: 978-1-711494-05-0 (Paperback) ISBN-13: 978-1-951693-42-8 (Digital). License: Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at openstax.org.

Humans acclimate to some degree to repeated exposure to high temperatures. (credit: McKay Savage/flickr)

Climbers on Mount Everest must accommodate extreme cold, low oxygen levels, and low barometric pressure in an environment hostile to human life. (credit: Melanie Ko/flickr)

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Dưới đây là video và các luyện tập (practice) của bài này. Nghe là một kĩ năng khó, đặc biệt là khi chúng ta chưa quen nội dung và chưa có nhạy cảm ngôn ngữ. Nhưng cứ đi thật chậm và đừng bỏ cuộc.
Xem video và cảm nhận nội dung bài. Bạn có thể thả trôi, cảm nhận dòng chảy ngôn ngữ và không nhất thiết phải hiểu toàn bộ bài. Bên dưới là script để bạn khái quát nội dụng và tra từ mới.
Script:
  1. Humans cannot survive for more than a few minutes without oxygen, for more than several days without water, and for more than several weeks without carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
  2. The body can respond to high temperatures by sweating and to low temperatures by shivering and increased fuel consumption.
  3. However, long-term exposure to extreme heat and cold is not compatible with survival.
  4. The body requires precise atmospheric pressure to maintain its gases in solution and to facilitate respiration, which involves the intake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide.
  5. Humans also require blood pressure high enough to ensure that blood reaches all body tissues but low enough to avoid damage to blood vessels.
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